As announced this morning, the 2025 Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded to John Clarke, Michel Devoret, and John Martinis, for a series of ground-breaking experiments in the 1980s that demonstrated macroscopic quantum tunneling.
For non-experts: "Tunneling" was originally coined to describe the physical motion of a quantum object, which can pass through a "classically forbidden" region. I've written about this
here, and here is an evocative picture. Suppose there is a particle with a certain amount of total energy in the left region. Classically, the particle is trapped, because going too far to the left (gray region) or too far to the right (gray region) is forbidden: Putting the particle inside the shaded regions is "classically forbidden" by conservation of energy. The particle bounces back and forth in the left well. If the particle is a quantum object, though, it is described by a wave function, and that wave function has some non-zero amplitude on the far side of barrier in the middle. The particle can "tunnel" through the barrier, with a probability that decreases exponentially with the height of the barrier and its width.
Clarke, Devoret, and Martinis were working not with a single particle, but with electrons in a superconductor (many many electrons in a coherent quantum state). The particular system they chose was a
Josephson junction made from an oxide-coated Nb film contacted by a PbIn electrode with a dc current flowing through it. Instead of an
x coordinate of a particle, the relevant coordinate in this system is the phase difference \(\delta\) of the superconducting wave function across the junction. There is an effective potential energy for this system called a "washboard" potential, \(U(\delta)\), as in this figure. At the particular DC current, which tilts \(U(\delta)\), the system can transition from one state (\(\delta\) bopping around a constant value, no voltage across the junction) to a state where \(\delta\) is continuously ramping (corresponding to a nonzero voltage across the junction). The system can get thermally kicked from the zero voltage state to the nonzero voltage state (thermal energy doinks it over the barrier), but the really interesting thing is that the system can quantum mechanically tunnel "through" the barrier as well.
This idea, that a macroscopic (in the sense of comprising many many electrons) system could tunnel out of a metastable state like this, had been investigated by Amir Caldeira and Tony Leggett in this important paper, where they worried about the role of dissipation in the environment. People tried hard to demonstrate this, but issues with thermal radiation and other noise in the experiments were extremely challenging. With great care in experimental setup, the three laureates put together a remarkable series of papers (here, here, here) that showed all the hallmarks, including resonantly enhancing tunneling with tuned microwaves (designed to kick the system between the levels shown in panel (d) of the figure above).
This was an impressive demonstration of controllable, macroscopic quantum tunneling, and it also laid the foundation for the devices now used by the whole superconducting quantum computing community.
