Fiber and CCDs

As you've all no doubt read by now, the 2009 Nobel in Physics was awarded to Charles K. Kao, for the development of truly low loss fiber optics (a technology that you're all using right now, unless the internet backbone in your country consists of smoke signals or semaphore flags), and Willard Boyle + George Smith for the invention of the CCD (charge-coupled device, which is the basis for all digital cameras, and has revolutionized spectroscopy).  

The CCD portion makes a tremendous amount of sense.  CCDs work by using local gates on a doped semiconductor wafer to capture charge generated by the absorption of light.  The charge is then shifted to an amplifier and the resulting voltage pulses are converted into a digital signal that can be interpreted by a computer.  The description given in the supporting document (pdf) on the Nobel website is very good.  CCDs have revolutionized astronomy and spectroscopy as well as photography, and the physics that must be understood and controlled in order to get these things to work well is quite rich (not just the charge generation process, but the solid state physics of screening, transport, and carrier trapping).

The fiber optic portion is more tricky, since many people have worked on the development of fiber optic communications.  Still, Kao had the insight that the real limitation on light propagation in fiber came from particular types of impurities, understood the physics of those impurities, guided a program toward clean material, and had the vision to see where this could all lead.  

Certainly there will be grumbling from some that these are <sneer>engineering</sneer> accomplishments rather than essential physics, as if having a practical impact with your science that leads to technology and helps society is somehow dirty, second-rate, or a sign of intellectual inferiority.  That is a terrible attitude, and I'm not just saying that because my bachelor's degree is in engineering.  Trust me:  some engineers have just as much raw intellectual horsepower as high energy theoretical physicists.  Finding intellectual fulfillment in engineering is not some corruption of pure science - it's just how some very smart people prefer to spend their time.  Oh, by the way, the actual will of Alfred Nobel refers to accomplishments that "shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind", and specifically mentions "the person who shall have made the most important discovery or invention [my emphasis] within the field of physics".

Finally, this provides yet another data point on just how transformative Bell Labs (and other remarkable industrial R&D labs, including IBM, GE, and others) really was in the physical sciences.  The withering of long-term industrial research will be felt for a long, long time to come.


 

Single atoms in semiconductors

One last post before the obligatory Nobel post tomorrow.

Recently, there has been progress in examining the electronic transport properties of individual dopant atoms in semiconductors.  There are several motivations for this.  First and probably foremost, with increasing miniaturization we are rapidly approaching the limit when the active channel in semiconductor devices will contain, statistically, only a small number of dopants; it makes sense to figure out how these systems work and whether they have any intrinsically useful properties.  Second, these systems are the ultimate small-size limit of quantum dots, even smaller than single-molecule transistors.  Third, since the host materials are extremely well-studied, and quantum chemistry calculations can handle the relevant volumes of material, there is the possibility of realistic, detailed theoretical treatments.  This paper is a great example of treating an individual phosphorus donor in Si as a quantum dot.  This other paper looks at a single arsenic donor, and can see Kondo physics involving the unpaired electron on the donor site interacting with the (valley degenerate) Si conduction electrons.  Very cool stuff!

The return of the embarassing news story.

As mentioned previously, the news story about NSF upper level staff surfing for porn while on the job is back.  This would be funny if it weren't so pathetic and sad.  Obviously this is inappropriate behavior, and NSF clearly needs to get their IT staff up to snuff, since it's certainly possible in a corporate environment to detect and stop this kind of activity.  Still, it seems unfair to single out NSF like this.  I'd be surprised if this didn't go on in all large, computer-heavy organizations at some rate.

First principles vs. toy models

One of the hot topics at the workshop I attended was the proper role of "first principles" calculations in trying to understand electronic conduction at the atomic and molecular scale.  In this business, there tend to be two approaches.  The first, which I call for lack of a better term the "toy model" paradigm, constructs models that are highly idealized and minimalistic, and you hope that they contain the essential physics needed to describe real systems.  An example of such a model would be the single-level Anderson-Holstein model of transport through a molecule.  Instead of worrying about all of the detailed electronic levels of a molecule and the many-electron physics there, you would concentrate on a single electronic level that can either be empty, singly occupied, or doubly occupied.  Instead of worrying about the detailed band structure of the electrodes, you would treat them as ideal electronic reservoirs, and there would be some couplings that allows electrons to hop between the level and the reservoirs.  Instead of considering all of the possible molecular vibrations, you would assume a single characteristic vibrational mode that "lives" on the molecule, and there would be some additional energy cost for having that vibration excited while there is an electron occupying the level.  While this sounds complicated, it is still a comparatively idealized situation that can be described by a handful of characteristic energies, and it contains rich physics.

On the other hand, one can consider trying to model a specific molecule in detail, worrying about the precise electronic and vibrational levels appropriate for exactly that molecule bonded in a particular configuration to a specific kind of metal electrode surface.  While this sounds in some ways like it's what you "really" ought to do, this "first principles" approach is fraught with challenges.  For example, just solving for the electronic levels of the molecule and their relative alignment with the electronic levels in the electrodes is extremely difficult in general.  While there are impressive techniques that can work well in certain situations (e.g., density functional theory), very often the circumstances where those methods work best (quasi-equilibrium, far away from resonances, in situations where electron correlation effects are minimal) are often not too interesting. 

It's interesting to watch the gradual convergence of these approaches.  As computing power grows and increasingly sophisticated treatments are developed, it looks like first-principles calculations are getting better.  One direction that seems popular now, as our condensed matter seminar speaker yesterday pointed out, is using such calculations as guidelines for correctly estimating the parameters that should be fed into the essential physics toy models.  Interesting times are on the horizon.

AAAS and advertising

I've received three pieces of fundraising advertising from AAAS in the last two days via US Mail.  This makes me wonder about a few things.  First, in this day and age, why can't they get a mailing database set up that can tell that Douglas Natelson and Dr. Douglas Natelson at the same address are actually the same person? Second, do they really think that I pay a lot of attention to bulk-mailed fundraising appeals? Third, how much money are they spending, how much energy is consumed, and how much pollution is generated in sending out these tree-killing mailings, when they claim to be environmentally conscious and already have my email address as a subscriber to Science? Fourth, this many appeals in one week smacks of desperation - is there something we should know? 

Curve fitting

Very often in experimental physics, we're interested in comparing some data to a physical model that may involve a number of unknown parameters, and we want to find the set of parameters that gives the best fit.  Typically "best fit" means minimizing a "cost" function, often the sum of the squares of the deviations between the model and the data.  The challenge is that many models can be very complicated, with nonlinear dependences on the parameters.  This often means that finding the optimal parameters can be very difficult - the cost function in parameter-space can have lots of shallow, local minima, for example.  The cost function may also be extremely sensitive to some parameters (the "stiff" ones) and comparatively insensitive to others (the "sloppy" ones).  In arxiv:0909.3884, James Sethna and Cornell colleagues take a look at this dilemma using the tools of differential geometry, and they propose an improvement to standard techniques based on geodesics on the relevant hypersurface in parameter space.  This looks really cool (if mathematical!), and I wish they'd included an example of an actual minimization problem that they'd done with this (instead of leaving it for an "in preparation" reference).  Any prospect for real improvements in nonlinear fitting is exciting.

Ahh, KLM.

Stuck in Schipol, forced to fly back to Houston via BRE-AMS-DET-IAH, since mechanical difficulties cancelled my early BRE-AMS flight (thus causing me to miss my AMS-IAH direct flight).  The other AMS-IAH direct flight on their schedule is really just a psychological torture device, since it's really a charter that's 100% business class and un-bookable except as a cash purchase (which would set me back $4K on top of everything I've already paid).

Could be worse.  There was another guy on the original BRE-AMS flight that got involuntarily rebooked through Paris.  After hanging out at the Bremen airport for four hours, he got to have his BRE-Paris flight also cancelled due to mechanical difficulties.

At least the workshop was extremely good.

Draconian ISP.

The ISP (netopsie) for my hotel here in Bremen, Germany has apparently decided to block access to all "blogspot.com" domains.  If I try to view my blog, I get redirected to a page that says "Banned Site.  You are seeing this error because what you attempted to access appears to contain, or is labeled as containing, material that has been deemed inappropriate."  Ironically, I can post new entries since that is done from a blogger.com page.   I can't view the blog, however, or see comments.  Idiots.  Makes me wonder what they find objectionable on blogs in particular, or whether they are complete puritans and block lots of stuff.

This week in cond-mat

Three quick blurbs from the arxiv this week.  I'm going to a workshop in Germany next week and have a bunch to do in the meantime, so blogging will likely be light.

arxiv:0909.0628 - Bocquet and Charlaix, Nanofluidics, from bulk to interfaces
This paper is an outstanding overview of fluids confined to the nanoscale.  I will definitely be referring to this the next time I teach my graduate course that touches on this topic.  Two of the central questions that comes up when thinking about fluids at the nanoscale are, when do large-scale assumptions about hydrodynamics (e.g., that fluid right at the walls of a container is at rest relative to the walls, even when the fluid away from the walls is flowing - the so-called "no slip" boundary condition) break down, and when does the continuum picture of the fluid (i.e., that fluid may be modeled as a homogeneous medium with some density, rather than a collection of strongly coupled particles) fall apart?  This article looks at these issues in detail, with many useful references.

arxiv:0909.0951 - Saikin et al., On the chemical bonding effects in the Raman response: Benzenethiol adsorbed on silver clusters
This one is of interest to me because of its relevance to some of the research done in my group.  Raman scattering is inelastic light scattering, where light can lose (or gain) energy to a molecule by exciting (or de-exciting) molecular vibrations.  It's been known for more than 30 years that the Raman scattering process can be greatly (many orders of magnitude) enhanced on nanostructured metal surfaces.  This happens for two reasons.  First, nanostructured metals support local plasmon modes, so that the metal acts like a little optical antenna, helping the molecule to "receive" (and "transmit") light.  This is called electromagnetic enhancement.  Second, there can be additional enhancing effects due to resonances involving charge transfer between the molecule and the nearby metal.  This latter effect is called chemical enhancement, and this paper takes a detailed look at how this can arise, considering specific configurations of molecules on Ag clusters.  It is very challenging to do calculations like this and get realistic results!

arxiv:0909.1205 - Martineau et al, High crystalline quality single crystal CVD diamond
I picked this one because (a) the fact that it is possible to grow high quality single crystal diamond by chemical vapor deposition is just plain cool, as well as of great technological potential; and (b) the x-ray topographs in this paper showing crystallographic defects in the crystals are very pretty.

If you're reading this, you're probably pretty net-savvy.

Perhaps this feature has always been available, but I just noticed the other night that Google Analytics can tell me stats about what kind of web browsers people use to access this page.  Far and away the number one browser used was Firefox (57%), followed by Safari (16%), Internet Explorer (15%), and Chrome (8%).  Interestingly, the breakdown for those accessing my group webpage was quite different, with IE having more like 30% of the total.  Very educational.  No one using lynx, though.

Two nanoscience tidbits

Since nearly everyone else in the science blogging world has touched on this (see here, here, here, here, and here, to name a few), I might as well do so, also.  Leo Gross and coworkers at IBM Zurich have used an atomic force microscope to do something incredibly impressive:  They have been able to image the bonding orbitals in individual pentacene molecules with better than atomic resolution, using the very short-range forces that contribute to the "hard core repulsion" between atoms.  Atoms tend to be attracted to each other on nanometer scales, even in the absence of strong chemical interactions, due to the van der Waals interaction, which comes from the fluctuating motion of their electron clouds.  At very short distances, though, atoms effectively repel each other extremely strongly, both from the Coulomb interaction (electrons don't like each other overly much) and the effects of the Pauli Exclusion Principle.  Gross and colleagues accomplished this feat by working in ultrahigh vacuum (around 10^-15 of atmospheric pressure) and at 5 K, and by deliberately attaching a single CO molecule to their conducting atomic force microscope (AFM) tip.  It's a heck of a technical achievement for AFM.  Atomic resolution has been demonstrated before, but this kind of sensitivity is remarkable.  (FWIW, I once heard one of the major coauthors, Gerhard Meyer, speak at a meeting about the same group's ultrahigh resolution STM work.  He seemed very low key about their obviously impressive achievements - amazingly so.  I hope he got excited about this!)

Also, a group at Berkeley has made a laser based on a CdS nanowire, and like the result mentioned last week, this gadget uses plasmons (this time in a Ag film) to act as an effective cavity.  Clearly using the extreme confinement of some plasmon modes to do photonics is going to be a growth industry.

Industrial R&D

I've felt for a long time that the current business climate, which punishes rather than rewards long-term research investments by companies, is misguided. When most stock is owned and traded by institutional investors and large funds who don't have any interest in holding particular companies for the long term, and when executive compensation massively overvalues year-over-year growth (because we all know that 40% annual growth in cell phone sales is sustainable forever, right? There's no such thing as market saturation, is there?), you end up where long-term investment is viewed by company boards as a misuse of resources. This article in Business Week makes some interesting arguments on ways to try and fix this. Unfortunately I think most of these ideas are not very compelling or likely. Norm Augustine had an interesting suggestion: scale the capital gains tax rate inversely with the amount of time one owns a stock. If someone holds a stock less than a year, tax the capital gains at 90%. If they own the stock 10 years or more, tax the capital gains at nearly 0%. Interpolate appropriately. The idea here is to set up a system that incentivizes long-term investment, which in turn is more likely to support industrial research. Hard to see how such an overhaul would ever get passed in Congress, though. I imagine the financial industry would crush it like a bug, since anything that slows down trading is viewed as interference in the free market, or, more cynically, interference in their enormous transaction fee profits.

How we fund grad students

As new grad students flood onto campuses across the US, I just got around to reading this piece in Science from a few of weeks ago about Roald Hoffman's idea for changing the way we support grad students in the sciences and engineering. Most S&E grad students in the US are supported by a mix of teaching assistantships (TAs), research assistanceships (RAs), and fellowships. A typical S&E grad student at an American university shows up and is supported during their their first year by a mix of university funds and pay for teaching. They then often make the transition to being supported as an RA by research funds obtained by their advisor through research grants. (Some remain as TAs - this is more common at large, public institutions with large undergraduate teaching needs.) Some relatively small fraction of S&E grad students are supported instead by fellowships, awarded competitively by agencies like NSF, DOE, DOD, NIH, etc. or by private foundations such as the Hertz Foundation.

Prof. Hoffman suggests that we should move to a system where all grad student support is fellowship-based. The idea is that this will (a) fund only the best students; (b) allow students much greater independence since an advisor will no longer be able to say "You have to do boring experiment #23 because that's what the grant that's paying your salary says we're going to do"; (c) result in better mentoring b/c faculty will no longer view students as "hands". Now, there's basically no way to see how such a drastic change in the system would ever happen, but it's worth looking at the idea.

As someone lucky enough to have a fellowship in grad school, I understand the appeal from the student side. Independence is great - it means that you and your advisor are freed from the stress of worrying that your grant won't get renewed when you're in year 3 of your program. It means that you are a free agent.

However, I think Hoffman's idea would be a disaster, for two main research-related reasons (not to mention the challenge of how you'd handle TA duties at large places that suddenly had many fewer grad students). First, there is little doubt that this would skew an already tilted system even further in favor of the top, say, 20 institutions in the country. Right now it's possible for good researchers at second tier universities to write grants, hire students, and do research. Imagine instead if the only source of student support were competitive external fellowships. It's all well and good to talk about overproduction of PhDs, and say that drastically reducing the number of grad students would be good for employment and salaries. There is a point to that. However, you would effectively end research as an enterprise at many second and third-tier schools, and there are a fair number of really good programs that would go away. Second, since federally funded fellowships would presumably only go to US citizens, this idea would drastically reduce international PhD students in S&E. That, too, would be a mess. Some of our best students are international students, and whether or not they stay in the US after their degrees, training these people is a valuable service that the current US system provides.

It is worth considering other funding schemes, though. I know that in the UK students are supported through their PhD, rather than on a schedule set by external grant deadlines. Perhaps some of my UK readers could comment on the pluses and minuses of this approach.

plasmons instead of cavities

Sorry for the delay in posts. The beginning of the new academic year is a hectic time.

This paper is a very exciting new result. Unfortunately there does not appear to be a publicly accessible version available. Ordinarily, lasing (that is, light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation) requires a few things. One needs a "gain medium", some kind of optically active system that has (at least one) radiative transition. In this paper, the medium is a dielectric oxide containing dye molecules known to fluoresce at a wavelength of 520 nm. This medium needs to be pumped somehow, so that there are more optically active systems in the excited state than in the ground state. This is called "population inversion". (It is possible to get lasing without inversion, but that's a very special case....) Finally, one generally needs a cavity - an optical resonator of high enough quality that an emitted photon stays around long enough to stimulate the emission of many more photons. The cavity has to be somewhat leaky, so that the laser light can get out. However, if the cavity is too leaky, the optical gain from stimulated emission in the pumped medium can't outpace the cavity losses. The usual approach is to have a rather high quality cavity, made using either dielectric mirrors, total internal reflection, or some other conventional reflectors.

In this paper, however, the authors take a different tactic. They use the near-field from the plasmon resonance of the gold core (not coincidentally, at around 520 nm wavelength) of Au-core-dielectric-shell nanoparticles. Plasmon resonances are often quite lossy, and this is no exception - the Q of the plasmon resonance is around 14. However, the enhanced near field is so large, and the effective mode volume (confinement) is so small, that gain still outpaces loss. When the dye is optically pumped, it is possible to make these nanoparticles lase. This paper is likely to spawn a great deal of further work! It's cool, and there are many clear directions to pursue now that this has been demonstrated.

This week in cond-mat

Where did summer go? Several interesting things on the arxiv recently. Here are two from this past week that caught my eye.

arxiv:0806.3547 - Katz et al., Uncollapsing of a quantum state in a superconducting phase qubit
This paper first appeared on the arxiv last year, and it made it onto this week's mailings because the authors uploaded the final, published version (PRL 101, 200401 (2008)). This experiment is important as a technical development in the quantum computing community, since the ability to restore some measure of purity to a quantum state after that state gets entangled with some environmental degrees of freedom could be very useful. It is also a great example of why simplistic thought experiments about wavefunction collapse are misleading. A better way to think about this experiment is in (an imperfect) analogy to spin echo in nuclear magnetic or electron spin resonance. In a spin echo experiment, an ensemble of spins is set precessing, and the evidence of their coherent precession gets smeared out as a function of time as the spins "dephase" (get out of sync because of perturbing interactions with other degrees of freedom). However, in these echo experiments, a properly defined external perturbation (a pulse of microwaves) can flip all of these spins around, so that the ones originally going ahead of the pack are put in the back, and the slow ones are put in the front. The spins rephase, or become coherent in their motion again. The authors do something rather analogous here using superconducting devices. Nice!

arxiv:0908.1126 - N. P. Armitage, Electrodynamics of correlated electron systems
I'm not promoting this just because Peter sometimes comments on this blog. This is a great set of lecture notes from a 2008 summer school at Boulder. These notes provide a very good, pedagogical overview of how electromagnetic radiation interacts with the electronic systems of real materials, and how one can use measurements ranging from the THz (mm-wave) to the ultraviolet to infer details of the electronic properties. These sorts of reviews are a wonderful feature of the arxiv.

LHC and the hazards of Big Science

This article in the NY Times about the LHC's current problems was interesting. To be fair, the LHC is an incredibly complex undertaking. Making high quality superconducting joints between magnets is a complex business, involving spot-welding annoying materials like niobium-titanium alloys. Testing is a real pain, since room temperature measurements can't always identify bad joints. Still, they clearly didn't design an optimal testing and commissioning regimen. I'm sure they'll get these problems licked, and great science will eventually come out of the machine - it's just a question of how long that'll take. I do wonder, though, if stories like this are, in part, a consequence of their own publicity machine, which has been hammering the general public relentlessly for years about how the LHC is going to unlock the secrets of the universe.

This situation is a prime hazard of Big Science. One thing I definitely like about condensed matter and AMO physics, for example, is that you are often (though not always) in control of your own destiny. Progress is generally not dependent on 1000 other people and 500 vendors and suppliers, nor do you have to hope that some launch schedule isn't screwed up by a hailstorm. The general public needs to know that really good science can be done on a much smaller scale. While the LHC outreach effort is meant to inspire young people into pursuing physics, situations like these delays and the accompanying reporting probably frighten away more people from the field than they attract. If a layperson ends up with the impression that all physics is hugely expensive, and even then doesn't work right, that's not a good thing.

Chemistry vs. Physics blogging

Interesting. The pseudonymous Kyle Finchsigmate at The Chem Blog just gave some stats about his blogging. He gets something like 6000 unique visitors a day, while I get about 150. Admittedly, we have rather different styles (pseudonymity makes it easy to write with more, umm, gusto, and to slam lousy papers openly, both of which probably make his blog have more broad appeal), and there are a lot more chemists out there than condensed matter physicists. Still, the factor of 40 is a bit intimidating.

More musing about phase transitions

Everyone has seen phase transitions - water freezing and water boiling, for example. These are both examples of "first-order" phase transitions, meaning that there is some kind of "latent heat" associated with the transition. That is, it takes a certain amount of energy to convert 1 g of solid ice into 1 g of liquid water while the temperature remains constant. The heat energy is "latent" because as it goes into the material, it's not raising the temperature - instead it's changing the entropy, by making many more microscopic states available to the atoms than were available before. In our ice-water example, at 0 C there are a certain number of microscopic states available to the water molecules in solid ice, including states where the molecules are slightly displaced from their equilibrium positions in the ice crystal and rattling around. In liquid water at the same temperature, there are many more possible microscopic states available, since the water molecules can, e.g., rotate all over the place, which they could not do in the solid state. (This kind of transition is "first order" because the entropy, which can be thought of as the first derivative of some thermodynamic potential, is discontinuous at the transition.) Because this kind of phase transition requires an input or output of energy to convert material between phases, there really aren't big fluctuations near the transition - you don't see pieces of ice bopping in and out of existence spontaneously inside a glass of icewater.

There are other kinds of phase transitions. A major class of much interest to physicists is that of "second-order" transitions. If one goes to high enough pressure and temperature, the liquid-gas transition becomes second order, right at the critical point where the distinction between liquid and gas vanishes. A second order transition is continuous - that is, while there is a change in the collective properties of the system (e.g., in the ferro- to paramagnetic transition, you can think of the electron spins as many little compass needles; in the ferromagnetic phase the needles all point the same direction, while in the paramagnetic phase they don't), the number of microscopic states available doesn't change across the transition. However, the rate at which microstates become available with changes in energy is different on the two sides of the transition. In second order transitions, you can get big fluctuations in the order of the system near the transition. Understanding these fluctuations ("critical phenomena") was a major achievement of late 20th century theoretical physics.

Here's an analogy to help with the distinction: as you ride a bicycle along a road, the horizontal distance you travel is analogous to increasing the energy available to one of our systems, and the height of the road corresponds to the number of microscopic states available to the system. If you pedal along and come to a vertical cliff, and the road continues on above your head somewhere, that's a bit like the 1st order transition. With a little bit of energy available, you can't easily go back and forth up and down the cliff face. On the other hand, if you are pedaling along and come to a change in the slope of the road, that's a bit like the 2nd order case. Now with a little bit of energy available, you can imagine rolling back and forth over that kink in the road. This analogy is far from perfect, but maybe it'll provide a little help in thinking about these distinctions. One challenge in trying to discuss this stuff with the lay public is that most people only have everyday experience with first-order transitions, and it's hard to explain the subtle distinction between 1st and 2nd order.

The Anacapa Society

Hat tip to Arjendu for pointing this out. The Anacapa Society is a national society that promotes and encourages research in computational and theoretical physics at primarily undergrad institutions. They've had a good relationship with the KITP at UCSB, and have just signed an agreement that gives them a real home at Amherst College. (I've had a soft spot for Amherst since back in the day when I was struggling to decide whether to do the tier-1 research route vs. the undergrad education trajectory.) The nice thing about promoting this kind of research is that, particularly on the computational side of things, well-prepared undergrads at smaller institutions can make real contributions to science without necessarily the expensive infrastructure required for some hardcore experimental areas.

Cute optics demo

This youtube video is something that I'll have to remember for a future demo. It shows that cellophane tape makes (1-side) frosted glass appear to be transparent. Quite striking! The reason this works is pretty straightforward from the physics perspective. Frosted glass looks whitish because its surface has been covered (by sandblasting or something analogous) with little irregularities that have a typical size scale comparable to the wavelengths of visible light. Because of the different in index of refraction between glass and air, these little irregularities diffusely scatter light, and they do a pretty equitable job across the visible spectrum. (This is why clouds are white, too, by the way.) By coating the glass intimately with a polymer layer (with an index of refraction closer to the glass than that of the air), one is effectively smoothing out the irregularities to a large degree. As far as I know, this is essentially the same physics behind why wet fabrics often appear darker than dry fabrics. Some of the apparent lightness of the dry material is due to diffuse scattering by ~ wavelength-sized stray threads and fibers. A wetting liquid acts as an index-matching medium, effectively smoothing out those inhomogeneities and reducing that diffuse scattering.